12 — Advanced Graphs

Neetcode Week 10. This is where graphs become weighted: shortest paths, MST, and the Union-Find data structure.

When to use what (decision tree)
Dijkstra's algorithm
Bellman-Ford (negative weights allowed)
Bellman-Ford with k stops
Union-Find (Disjoint Set Union)
Minimum Spanning Tree (Kruskal & Prim)
Floyd-Warshall (all-pairs shortest path)
A* (mention only)
Walked-through problems
Pitfalls
Practice list

1. When to use what

┌────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┐
│                                                        │
│  Need shortest path?                                   │
│  ├── Unweighted (or all weights = 1)?                  │
│  │     → BFS                                           │
│  ├── Weights all ≥ 0?                                  │
│  │     → Dijkstra (O((V+E) log V))                     │
│  ├── Negative weights, no neg cycle?                   │
│  │     → Bellman-Ford (O(V·E))                         │
│  ├── Need all-pairs shortest path?                     │
│  │     → Floyd-Warshall (O(V³))                        │
│  └── Need shortest with at-most-k edges?               │
│        → Bellman-Ford restricted to k iterations        │
│                                                        │
│  Need to merge groups / detect cycle in undirected?    │
│  → Union-Find                                          │
│                                                        │
│  Need minimum spanning tree?                           │
│  → Kruskal (sort edges + Union-Find)                   │
│  → Prim (priority queue)                               │
│                                                        │
└────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┘

2. Dijkstra's algorithm

Single-source shortest path, non-negative weights.

The idea

Maintain a min-heap of (distance_so_far, node). Pop the node with the smallest current distance. For each neighbor, see if going through this node gives a shorter path; if so, update and push.

import heapq
from collections import defaultdict

def dijkstra(graph, start):
    """graph: {u: [(v, weight), ...]}"""
    dist = {start: 0}
    pq = [(0, start)]
    while pq:
        d, u = heapq.heappop(pq)
        if d > dist.get(u, float('inf')):
            continue                                  # stale entry
        for v, w in graph[u]:
            nd = d + w
            if nd < dist.get(v, float('inf')):
                dist[v] = nd
                heapq.heappush(pq, (nd, v))
    return dist

Why does this work?

When we pop a node u, it means no future path can be shorter than what we already have. This is because:

All weights are ≥ 0, so adding more edges can never decrease total cost.
The heap pops in increasing order of d.

So the popped distance is final.

Why "skip if stale" check?

We push duplicate entries when we update a shorter path, never removing the old. When the old (with larger distance) is popped, we skip it.

Complexity

Op	Cost
Each push	O(log V)
Total pushes	O(E) (each edge can trigger one)
Total	O((V + E) log V)

Network Delay Time (Medium)

n nodes, weighted directed edges (u, v, w). Starting from k, return the time for all to receive a signal, or -1 if impossible.

import heapq
from collections import defaultdict

def network_delay_time(times, n, k):
    graph = defaultdict(list)
    for u, v, w in times:
        graph[u].append((v, w))
    
    dist = {}
    pq = [(0, k)]
    while pq:
        d, u = heapq.heappop(pq)
        if u in dist: continue                        # already finalized
        dist[u] = d
        for v, w in graph[u]:
            if v not in dist:
                heapq.heappush(pq, (d + w, v))
    
    if len(dist) < n: return -1
    return max(dist.values())

if u in dist: continue is the finalize on first pop version, which is more correct than "skip if stale" if we're careful.

3. Bellman-Ford

Single-source shortest path, allows negative weights, but not negative cycles reachable from source.

The idea

Relax every edge V-1 times. After V-1 iterations, the shortest path is guaranteed because any simple path has at most V-1 edges.

def bellman_ford(edges, n, src):
    dist = [float('inf')] * n
    dist[src] = 0
    for _ in range(n - 1):
        updated = False
        for u, v, w in edges:
            if dist[u] + w < dist[v]:
                dist[v] = dist[u] + w
                updated = True
        if not updated: break
    
    # Optional: check for negative cycles
    for u, v, w in edges:
        if dist[u] + w < dist[v]:
            return None                                # negative cycle reachable
    return dist

Complexity: O(V · E).

When to use

Negative weights allowed.
Need to detect negative cycles.
"Find shortest path with at most k edges" (next section).

4. Bellman-Ford with k stops

Cheapest Flights Within K Stops (Medium)

Shortest path from src to dst using at most k+1 edges (k stops in between).

A modified Bellman-Ford with exactly k+1 iterations:

def find_cheapest_price(n, flights, src, dst, k):
    dist = [float('inf')] * n
    dist[src] = 0
    for _ in range(k + 1):
        new_dist = dist[:]                              # snapshot — important!
        for u, v, w in flights:
            if dist[u] + w < new_dist[v]:
                new_dist[v] = dist[u] + w
        dist = new_dist
    return dist[dst] if dist[dst] < float('inf') else -1

Why snapshot? We want each iteration to extend by exactly one more edge. If we mutate dist in place, an updated dist[v] could be used by another edge in the same iteration, effectively skipping ahead. Snapshotting prevents this.

5. Union-Find

Maintain a partition of items into disjoint sets. Two operations:

find(x) — return the representative of x's set.

union(x, y) — merge the sets containing x and y.

Use cases

Connected components (especially when adding edges incrementally).
Cycle detection in undirected graph.
Kruskal's MST.
"Number of friend circles," "accounts merge."
Many graph problems where you don't need DFS structure.

Implementation with path compression + union by rank

class UnionFind:
    def __init__(self, n):
        self.parent = list(range(n))
        self.rank = [0] * n
        self.count = n                                  # number of disjoint sets
    
    def find(self, x):
        # path compression
        if self.parent[x] != x:
            self.parent[x] = self.find(self.parent[x])
        return self.parent[x]
    
    def union(self, x, y):
        rx, ry = self.find(x), self.find(y)
        if rx == ry: return False                       # already same set
        # union by rank: attach smaller under larger
        if self.rank[rx] < self.rank[ry]:
            rx, ry = ry, rx
        self.parent[ry] = rx
        if self.rank[rx] == self.rank[ry]:
            self.rank[rx] += 1
        self.count -= 1
        return True                                     # actual merge

Complexity

With both path compression and union by rank, both find and union are nearly O(1) amortized — specifically O(α(n)) where α is the inverse Ackermann function (effectively ≤ 4 for any practical n).

For interview purposes, just say "amortized O(1) with path compression and union by rank."

Path compression intuition

Before:                  After find(d):
   a                          a
   ↑                        ↑↑↑↑
   b                        bcde   (all point directly to root)
   ↑
   c
   ↑
   d

We flatten the tree on every find call, making future calls instant.

Number of Connected Components (Medium)

def count_components(n, edges):
    uf = UnionFind(n)
    for u, v in edges:
        uf.union(u, v)
    return uf.count

Graph Valid Tree (Medium)

A tree has exactly n - 1 edges and is connected. Equivalently, n nodes with n-1 edges and no cycle.

def valid_tree(n, edges):
    if len(edges) != n - 1: return False
    uf = UnionFind(n)
    for u, v in edges:
        if not uf.union(u, v): return False             # cycle detected
    return True

Redundant Connection (Medium)

An undirected graph started as a tree (n nodes, n-1 edges). One extra edge was added. Find the redundant edge — the one that creates a cycle. If multiple answers, return the one appearing last in input.

def find_redundant(edges):
    uf = UnionFind(len(edges) + 1)                       # 1-indexed
    for u, v in edges:
        if not uf.union(u, v):
            return [u, v]

The first union that fails is the one creating the cycle.

6. Minimum Spanning Tree

A spanning tree of a connected graph: a subset of edges connecting all V nodes with V-1 edges (no cycles). MST is one with minimum total weight.

Kruskal's Algorithm

Sort edges by weight.
For each edge in order: if its endpoints are in different sets (Union-Find), add to MST.
Stop when V-1 edges added.

def kruskal(n, edges):
    edges.sort(key=lambda e: e[2])                       # by weight
    uf = UnionFind(n)
    cost = 0
    used = 0
    for u, v, w in edges:
        if uf.union(u, v):
            cost += w
            used += 1
            if used == n - 1: break
    return cost if used == n - 1 else -1                 # disconnected

Complexity: O(E log E) for sort + O(E · α(V)) for unions.

Prim's Algorithm

Pick any starting node.
Maintain a min-heap of (weight, node) for edges from MST to outside.
Pop smallest. If endpoint not in MST, add it; push its outgoing edges.

import heapq

def prim(graph, n):
    """graph: {u: [(v, weight), ...]}"""
    visited = {0}
    pq = [(w, v) for v, w in graph[0]]
    heapq.heapify(pq)
    cost = 0
    while pq and len(visited) < n:
        w, v = heapq.heappop(pq)
        if v in visited: continue
        visited.add(v)
        cost += w
        for u, ww in graph[v]:
            if u not in visited:
                heapq.heappush(pq, (ww, u))
    return cost if len(visited) == n else -1

Complexity: O((V + E) log V).

Min Cost to Connect All Points (Medium) — Prim or Kruskal

Given 2D points, connect them all with min total Manhattan-distance edges.

Kruskal would generate O(n²) edges; for n up to 1000, that's 10⁶ — workable but borderline. Prim with implicit-graph: at each step, walk all unvisited nodes (O(n²) total) — also O(n²).

import heapq

def min_cost_connect_points(points):
    n = len(points)
    visited = [False] * n
    pq = [(0, 0)]
    cost = 0
    edges = 0
    while edges < n:
        w, u = heapq.heappop(pq)
        if visited[u]: continue
        visited[u] = True
        cost += w
        edges += 1
        for v in range(n):
            if not visited[v]:
                d = abs(points[u][0]-points[v][0]) + abs(points[u][1]-points[v][1])
                heapq.heappush(pq, (d, v))
    return cost

7. Floyd-Warshall

All-pairs shortest path, O(V³). Conceptually: for each intermediate k, update every (i, j) using i → k → j if shorter.

def floyd_warshall(graph, n):
    dist = [[float('inf')] * n for _ in range(n)]
    for i in range(n): dist[i][i] = 0
    for u in graph:
        for v, w in graph[u]:
            dist[u][v] = w
    
    for k in range(n):
        for i in range(n):
            for j in range(n):
                if dist[i][k] + dist[k][j] < dist[i][j]:
                    dist[i][j] = dist[i][k] + dist[k][j]
    return dist

Use when V ≤ ~500 and you need all-pairs distances. Rare in interviews; nice to recognize.

8. A* search

Heuristic-guided search. Like Dijkstra, but uses a heuristic estimate to prioritize moves toward the goal. Used in pathfinding (games, GPS).

Out of scope for most LeetCode problems. Mention it if asked about real-world pathfinding.

9. Walked-through problems

Swim in Rising Water (Hard)

2D grid where grid[i][j] is height. Water rises one unit per minute. You can move to adjacent cells if water height ≥ both. Find min time to reach (n-1, n-1).

This is a Dijkstra where the "distance" of a path is the max cell height on it.

import heapq

def swim_in_water(grid):
    n = len(grid)
    visited = set()
    pq = [(grid[0][0], 0, 0)]                            # (max_so_far, r, c)
    while pq:
        t, r, c = heapq.heappop(pq)
        if (r, c) in visited: continue
        visited.add((r, c))
        if r == n - 1 and c == n - 1: return t
        for dr, dc in [(-1,0),(1,0),(0,-1),(0,1)]:
            nr, nc = r+dr, c+dc
            if 0 <= nr < n and 0 <= nc < n and (nr,nc) not in visited:
                heapq.heappush(pq, (max(t, grid[nr][nc]), nr, nc))
    return -1

The cost of an edge (u, v) is max(cost_at_u, height[v]). This is "Dijkstra with a different relaxation rule" — the bottleneck shortest path.

Reconstruct Itinerary (Hard) — Eulerian path

Find a path that uses every edge exactly once, lexicographically smallest. Hierholzer's algorithm.

Alien Dictionary (Hard) — topological sort with derivation

Given words sorted in unknown alphabet, recover the alphabet's order. Compare adjacent words to derive edges, then topological sort.

10. Pitfalls

Dijkstra with negative weights

Doesn't work — Dijkstra "finalizes" a node on first pop, but a negative edge later could improve its distance. Use Bellman-Ford for negatives.

Bellman-Ford in-place vs snapshot

In-place (mutate dist directly): chains updates within one iteration. Used for "shortest path no edge limit" — gives correct answer.
Snapshot (use new_dist): each iteration extends by exactly one edge. Used for "shortest path with at most k edges."

Distinction matters for the k-stops problem.

Union-Find without compression

Without path compression, find becomes O(log n) (or even O(n) for adversarial inputs). With both path compression and union by rank, O(α(n)). Always use both.

Updating Union-Find recursively in Python

def find(self, x):
    if self.parent[x] != x:
        self.parent[x] = self.find(self.parent[x])    # recursive
    return self.parent[x]

This recurses up to the depth of the tree. For huge n, you may hit recursion limits. Iterative version:

def find(self, x):
    root = x
    while self.parent[root] != root:
        root = self.parent[root]
    while self.parent[x] != root:
        nxt = self.parent[x]
        self.parent[x] = root
        x = nxt
    return root

Forgetting to break on disconnected MST

If the input graph is disconnected, neither Kruskal nor Prim can build a spanning tree. Always check len(visited) == n (Prim) or used_edges == n - 1 (Kruskal) at the end.

Overflow in large weights (C++)

int can overflow when summing path costs. Use long long.

11. Practice list

#	Problem	Pattern	Difficulty
743	Network Delay Time	Dijkstra	Medium
778	Swim in Rising Water	Modified Dijkstra	Hard
787	Cheapest Flights Within K Stops	Bellman-Ford k iters	Medium
269	Alien Dictionary	Topo sort	Hard
332	Reconstruct Itinerary	Hierholzer	Hard
1584	Min Cost to Connect All Points	Prim's	Medium
684	Redundant Connection	Union-Find	Medium
261	Graph Valid Tree	Union-Find	Medium
323	Number of Connected Components	Union-Find	Medium
547	Number of Provinces	Union-Find	Medium
721	Accounts Merge	Union-Find with hashmap	Medium
1697	Checking Existence of Edge Length Limited Paths	Offline + Union-Find	Hard

TL;DR ✅

BFS for unweighted shortest path. Dijkstra for non-negative weighted. Bellman-Ford for negatives or k-stop variants.
Dijkstra: min-heap, lazy stale-skip, O((V+E) log V).
Bellman-Ford: V-1 relaxation rounds. O(V·E). Snapshot for "at most k edges."
Union-Find: find with path compression + union by rank → effectively O(1).
Kruskal MST: sort edges + Union-Find. Prim MST: min-heap of frontier edges.
Floyd-Warshall: O(V³) all-pairs. Use only when needed.

Next: 13-dp-1d.md.

External resources

NeetCode Advanced Graphs playlist: https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLot-Xpze53lcfZh2WgUMOl_uvGcZxfjyA
VisuAlgo Dijkstra: https://visualgo.net/en/sssp
VisuAlgo MST: https://visualgo.net/en/mst
William Fiset Union-Find: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ibjEGG7ylHk

12 — Advanced Graphs

Table of Contents

1. When to use what

2. Dijkstra's algorithm

The idea

Why does this work?

Why "skip if stale" check?

Complexity

Network Delay Time (Medium)

3. Bellman-Ford

The idea

When to use

4. Bellman-Ford with k stops

Cheapest Flights Within K Stops (Medium)

5. Union-Find

Use cases

Implementation with path compression + union by rank

Complexity

Path compression intuition

Number of Connected Components (Medium)

Graph Valid Tree (Medium)

Redundant Connection (Medium)

6. Minimum Spanning Tree

Kruskal's Algorithm

Prim's Algorithm

Min Cost to Connect All Points (Medium) — Prim or Kruskal

7. Floyd-Warshall

8. A* search

9. Walked-through problems

Swim in Rising Water (Hard)

Reconstruct Itinerary (Hard) — Eulerian path

Alien Dictionary (Hard) — topological sort with derivation

10. Pitfalls

Dijkstra with negative weights

Bellman-Ford in-place vs snapshot

Union-Find without compression

Updating Union-Find recursively in Python

Forgetting to break on disconnected MST

Overflow in large weights (C++)

11. Practice list

TL;DR ✅

External resources